History

Early Civilisations

Iron Age Bantu-speaking peoples began migrating into the area about 2,000 years ago, including the ancestors of the Shona, who account for roughly 80% of Zimbabwe's population today.

Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements, Khoisan cave paintings, arrowheads, pottery and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of human habitation for thousands of years, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of more recent civilisation.

Munhumutapa Empire

The most impressive of these sites are the Great Zimbabwe ruins (after which the country is named), located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the 9th and 13th centuries AD by indigenous Africans (Mwene Mutapa, or Munhumutapas), who had established trading contacts with Muslim merchants on Africa's southeastern coast. The state traded gold, ivory and copper for cloth and glass.

By the mid-1440s, King Mutota's empire included almost all of the Rhodesian (Zimbabwean) plateau and extensive parts of what is now Mozambique. The wealth of this empire was based on small-scale industries, for example iron smelting, textiles, gold and copper, along with agriculture. The regular inhabitants of the empire's trading towns were the Swahili merchants with whom trade was conducted.

Gokomere

The Gokomere people, a Bantu-speaking group of migrant farmers, inhabited the Great Zimbabwe site from about AD 500, displacing earlier Khoisan people. These were the ancestors of the Shona (or maShona) people, who make up about 80% of modern Zimbabwe's population. Later they formed the Rozwi Empire, which continued until the nineteenth century.

Ndebele

The Ndebele are a branch of the Zulus who split from King Shaka in the early 1820s, moving northwards in 1834 into present-day Zimbabwe where they battled with the Shona. They eventually carved out a home (now called Matabeleland) encompassing the west and south-west region of the country. In the course of the migration, large numbers of conquered local clans and individuals were absorbed into the Ndebele nation, adopting the Ndebele language but enjoying a lower social status than that of members of the original clans from the Zulu kingdom.

16th Century: Arrival of the Portuguese

In the early 16th century, the Portuguese arrived and began a series of wars that left the empire so weakened that it was near collapse by the early 17th century. Several Shona states came together to form the Rozwi Empire, which covered more than half of present day Zimbabwe.

By 1690, the Portuguese had been forced off the plateau and the Rozwi controlled much of the land formerly under Munhumutapa. Peace and prosperity reigned over the next two centuries and the centres of Dhlo-Dhlo, Khami, and Great Zimbabwe reached their peaks. As a result of the mid-19th century turmoil in Transvaal and Natal, the Rozwi Empire came to an end.

1888: British Conquest

In 1888, British imperialist Cecil Rhodes extracted mining rights from King Lobengula of the Ndebele. He then obtained a charter for the British South Africa Company in 1889, which conquered the Ndebele and their territory and promoted the colonisation of the region's land, labour, and precious metal and mineral resources. In 1895, the territory was named "Rhodesia" after Rhodes.

The increasing influx of settlers as a result of this treaty led to war with Lobengula, King of Matabeleland in 1893 (First Matabele War). Lobengula died while fleeing north, and the Ndebele were defeated and European immigration began in earnest. However, the Ndebele and Shona revolted in 1896-97 during the Second Matabele War, a conflict known in Zimbabwe as the First Chimurenga (Shona-language word for struggle). This later conflict is today celebrated in Zimbabwe as the First War of Independence.

In 1911, the territory was divided into Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Southern Rhodesia.

1923: Self-Government

Britain granted Southern Rhodesia self-governing colony status with responsible government in 1923. This gave them a local parliament, although some powers (notably relating to African political advancement) were retained by London. Southern Rhodesia was ruled via the Dominions Office (and not the Colonial Office), although strictly speaking the country was not a Dominion (as Canada, Australia, South Africa were).

In 1953, the two parts of Rhodesia were reunited together with Nyasaland (Malawi) in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. However, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland federation fell apart in 1963 when white minority rule acquiesced and granted independence to Zambia and Malawi.

1953-1980: White Minority Rule

From 1953 to 1958, the Southern Rhodesian government of Garfield Todd attempted to introduce liberal reforms to increase educational rights for the Black majority but Todd was forced from power when he attempted to expand the number of Blacks eligible to vote from 2% to 16%. The governments that followed Todd's became increasingly repressive introducing laws such as the Law and Order (Maintenance) Act of 1960 and the Emergency Powers Act which restricted the rights of the Black African majority.

The formation of a number of political parties along with sporadic acts of sabotage came as a result of African impatience with the pace of reforms and then in opposition to increased repression. At the forefront of this move was the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU), mostly Ndebele, led by Joshua Nkomo. It was shortly joined by the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), mostly Shona, a breakaway group under Ndabaningi Sithole. After the collapse of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1963, both ZAPU and ZANU were banned and the majority of their leaders imprisoned.

During the early 1960s most of the UK's African colonies were granted independence. Southern Rhodesia also sought independence, but the British government would not agree to this unless and until a black majority government was installed.

In 1965, Ian Smith's regime issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from Britain and Southern Rhodesia was renamed to Rhodesia. UDI attracted widespread international condemnation including the first economic sanctions in the history of the United Nations, led by Britain and the OAU (Organisation of African Unity).

When negotiations with the Ian Smith administration in 1966 and 1968 stalemated, the UK requested UN economic sanctions against Rhodesia. Faced with no alternative, the white-minority regime declared itself a republic in 1970. It was not recognised by the UK or any other state, other than white minority led South Africa under apartheid. The newly independent neighbouring African Nations of Zambia (former Northern Rhodesia) and Malawi (formerly Nyasaland) meanwhile, declared themselves to be one-party states.

Guerrilla Warfare

During this time, the Soviet bloc intensified its efforts to gain a foothold in Africa, with troops drafted in from Cuba, FYR and the USSR, openly funding lawless guerrilla warfare in Africa. Large shipments of land mines and weaponry were handed over to untrained groups of poorly educated youths led by power-hungry political activists.

Guerrilla fighting against the white minority intensified, and the Smith regime opened negotiations with the leaders of the Patriotic Fronts Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by Robert Mugabe and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua Nkomo. With his regime near the brink of collapse, Smith signed a desperate accord in March 1978 (known as the Internal Settlement) with three black leaders, led by the moderate Bishop Abel Muzorewa, who offered safeguards for white civilians. This led to the holding of new elections in 1979, in which black Africans would be in the majority for the first time. The country was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979, with Muzorewa as Prime Minister.

However, the new state was not recognised by the international community, which continued to press for a settlement involving the Patriotic Front. Muzorewa, who had the support not only of Smith but also of the white minority regime in South Africa, lacked credibility among significant parts of the African population, and his government soon faltered. In 1979, the British Government asked all parties to come to Lancaster House in London, in an attempt to negotiate a settlement in the civil war.

1980: Independence

Following the Lancaster House conference, the legal status as the British colony of Southern Rhodesia was restored, in preparation for free elections and independence as Zimbabwe. Britain's Lord Soames was appointed governor to oversee the disarming of revolutionary guerrillas, the holding of elections and the granting of independence to an uneasy coalition government with Joshua Nkomo, head of ZAPU. In the free elections of February 1980, Mugabe and his ZANU won a landslide victory.

The Republic of Zimbabwe came into being on April 18, 1980, in a ceremony attended by Prince Charles. A song was written and sung by Bob Marley to celebrate the independence of Zimbabwe also called 'Zimbabwe'. He was invited to perform a concert at the country's independence festivities.

As well as changing the name of the country, the new government changed numerous place names in 1982, starting with the capital, Salisbury, which was renamed Harare. The main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, was renamed in honour of Samora Machel, President of Mozambique.

The new Constitution provided for a non-executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. The first President was Rev. Canaan Banana with Robert Mugabe as Prime Minister. In 1987, the Constitution was amended to provide for an Executive President and the office of Prime Minister was abolished. The constitutional changes came into effect on 1 January 1988 with Robert Mugabe as President.

The Parliament was bicameral, with the House of Assembly being directly elected and the Senate consisting of indirectly elected and nominated members, including tribal chiefs. Under the Constitution, there were two separate voters rolls: one for the black African majority, who had 80% of the seats in Parliament and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as Coloureds (people of mixed race) and Asians, who held 20%.

This gave whites disproportionate representation, and in 1986 the Constitution was amended to scrap this system, replacing the white seats in with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined ZANU, which then reappointed them. In 1990, the Senate was abolished, and the House of Assembly's membership was increased to include members nominated by the President.

From 1982: Post Independence

Following independence, the rivalry that had been fermenting between ZAPU and ZANU erupted, with guerrilla activity starting again, in Matabeleland (south-western Zimbabwe). Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain, and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety.

Gukurahundi

Nkomo was appointed to the cabinet, but in 1982 was accused of plotting a coup after South African double agents in Zimbabwe's Central Intelligence Organisation, who were attempting to cause distrust between ZAPU and ZANU, planted arms on ZAPU owned farms, and then tipped Mugabe off to their existence. This sparked fighting between ZAPU supporters in the Ndebele-speaking region of the country and ZANU-PF. Armed resistance in Nkomo's stronghold of Matabeleland, in the west, was met with bloody government repression. At least 20,000 Matabele died in the ensuing near-genocidal massacres, perpetrated by an elite, North Korean -trained brigade. These actions were known in Zimbabwe by the euphemism 'Gukurahundi' ('the early rain which washes away the chaff before the spring rains').

A peace accord was negotiated in 1987, resulting in ZAPU's merger into the ZANU-PF (1988). On December 30, 1987 Mugabe became head of state after changing the constitution to usher in his vision of a presidential regime.

Disasters, Debt and Demonstrations

The drought in southern Africa, perhaps the worst of the century, affected Zimbabwe so severely that a national disaster was declared in 1992. The drought compounded the country's debt crisis. On December 9, 1997 a national strike paralysed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by Zanla ex-combatants (war veterans), who had been the heart of the terrorist incursions 20 years earlier. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment.

Land Reform

In 1999, land issues, which the liberation movement promised to solve, re-emerged as a vital issue. Despite majority-rule, whites made up less than 1% of the population but held 70% of the country's commercially viable arable land. Mugabe began to redistribute land to blacks in 2000 with a compulsory land redistribution. Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the so-called 'war veterans' and youth militia. This has led to a mass migration of White Rhodesians out of Zimbabwe.

The chaotic implementation of the land reform lead to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, traditionally the country's leading export producing sector. As a result, Zimbabwe is currently experiencing a severe hard currency shortage, which has led to hyperinflation and chronic shortages in imported fuel and consumer goods.

Current Issues

In February 2000, Mugabe tried to change the constitution by holding a constitutional referendum, in a move that would have allowed the president to serve two more terms (another 10 years) and the power to dissolve Parliament. The defeat of the referendum weakened the ruling party.

In 2002, Zimbabwe was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations on charges of human rights abuses during the land redistribution and of election tampering during the 2002 presidential elections.

Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "Operation Murambatsvina", a supposed effort to crack down on illegal markets and homes that had seen slums unfit for human habitation emerge in towns and cities. This action has been widely condemned by opposition and international figures, who charge that it has left a large section of the urban poor homeless. The Zimbabwe government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population although they have yet to deliver any new housing for the forcefully removed people.

Zimbabwe's current economic and food crisis, described by some observers as the country's worst humanitarian crisis since independence, has been attributed, in varying degrees, to a drought affecting the entire region, the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and the government's price controls and land reforms.