History

The history of North and South Korea is shared until their split in 1948.

Prehistory

Archaeological evidence shows that hominins first inhabited the Korean Peninsula 700,000 years ago, though some claim it may have been inhabited for 1,000,000 years. Tool-making artefacts from the Palaeolithic period (700,000 BC to 40,000 BC) have been found in present-day North Hamgyong, South P'yongan, Gyeonggi, and north and south Chungcheong Provinces. The people were cave dwellers and built homes, using fire for cooking food and warmth. They hunted, gathered and fished with stone tools.

8th Millennium BC: Jeulmun Pottery Period

The earliest known Korean pottery dates back to around 8000 BC or before, and evidence of Mesolithic Pit-Comb Ware culture or Yungimun Pottery is found throughout the peninsula. An example of a Yungimun-era site is the Gosan-ni in Jeju-do. Jeulmun or Comb-pattern Pottery is found after 7000 BC, and pottery with comb-patterns over the whole vessel is found concentrated at sites in West-central Korea between 3500-2000 BC, a time when a number of settlements such as Amsa-dong existed. Jeulmun pottery is similar to that of the Russian Maritime Province, Mongolia, and the Amur and Sungari River basins of Manchuria.

2333 BC: Founding of Gojoseon

According to legend, Korea's first kingdom, Gojoseon (then called Joseon), was founded by Dangun in 2333 BC, in southern Manchuria and northern Korean peninsula. By 2000 BC, a new pottery culture is evidenced, with painted designs, in Manchuria and northern Korea.

1500BC: Mumun Pottery Period

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that agricultural societies and the earliest forms of social-political complexity emerged in the Mumun Pottery Period (c. 1500-300 BC). People in southern Korea adopted intensive dry-field and paddy-field agriculture with a multitude of crops in the Early Mumun Period (1500-850 BC). The first societies led by big-men or chiefs emerged in the Middle Mumun (850-550 BC), and the first ostentatious elite burials can be traced to the Late Mumun (c. 550-300 BC). Bronze production began in the Middle Mumun and became increasingly important in Mumun ceremonial and political society after 700 BC. The Mumun is the first time that villages rose, became large, and then fell: some important examples include Songgung-ni, Daepyeong, and Igeum-dong. The increasing presence of long-distance trade, an increase in local conflicts, and the introduction of bronze and iron metallurgy are trends denoting the end of the Mumun around 300 BC.

1000 BC: Bronze Culture

Bronze daggers, mirrors, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th century BC.

300 BC: Iron Culture

It is believed that by the third century BC, iron culture was developing and the warring states of China pushed refugees eastward and south. Recently however, an iron mirror has been found in Songseok-ri Kangdong-gun Pyongyang in North Korea, that may have originated from 1200 BC.

Around this time, a state called Jin arose in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about Jin, but it established relations with Han China and exported artefacts to the Yayoi of Japan. A king of Gija Joseon may have fled to Jin after a coup by Wiman. Jin later evolved into the Samhan confederacies.

Later the Han Dynasty defeated the Wiman Joseon and set up Four Commanderies of Han.

The course of the decline and fall of Gojoseon is in dispute. One theory suggests that Gojoseon disintegrated by about 300 BC as it gradually lost the control of its former fiefs. Many smaller states sprang from the former territory of Gojoseon such as Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, Guda-guk, Galsa-guk, Gaema-guk, and Hangin-guk. Goguryeo and Baekje descended from Buyeo.

Proto-Three Kingdoms

The Proto-Three Kingdoms period, sometimes called the Several States Period, is the time before the rise of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which included Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje, and occurred after the fall of Gojoseon. This time period consisted of numerous states that sprang up from the former territories of Gojoseon.

Buyeo

Bukbuyeo

After the fall of Gojoseon, Hae Mosu, a person of Gojoseon descent, gathered an army of Gojoseon people at Ungshin Mountain in order to establish a kingdom that would reassert the glories of Gojoseon. In 2333 BC, Hae Mosu established Buyeo, and was given the title of 'Dangun,' which was the title given to the rulers of Gojoseon. Hae Mosu and his descendants ruled over Buyeo through seven generations.

Hae Mosu and his descendants constantly fought with Wiman Joseon and its many neighbours. Buyeo slowly began to conquer these neighbouring states, reunifying much of Gojoseon's former territories.

Buyeo split in 86 BC, after the death of its 4th Dangun, Hae Uru. With the death of Hae Uru, the throne of Buyeo was given to Hae Buru, the brother of Hae Uru. Hae Buru was challenged by another contender to the throne, Go Dumak, who was the descendant of Goyeolga Dangun, who was the last ruler of Gojoseon. Hae Buru was defeated and fled to the east, where he reopened his kingdom, forming Dongbuyeo. After this event, Go Dumak combined the Dongmyeong kingdom with Buyeo, forming Jolbon Buyeo.

Go Dumak continued on as the 5th ruler of Buyeo, and passed the throne to his son, Go Museo Dangun, upon his death in 60 BC. Go Museo ruled over Jolbon Buyeo for two years before dying in 38 BC. Go Museo Dangun had no sons, therefore, gave the throne to his son-in-law, who was Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo. Jolbon Buyeo later became the foundation for establishing Goguryeo, which was the northernmost and grew to become the most powerful of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Dongbuyeo

Dongbuyeo was founded in 86 BC, by King Hae Buru, who was the brother of Buyeo's 4th Dangun. Hae Buru was succeeded by Geumwa, who is mentioned in the Goguryeo Founding Myth. Geumwa's son, Daeso, becomes the third and last king of Dongbuyeo. He fought against King Daemusin, and was killed, bringing an end to Dongbuyeo.

Okjeo

The Kingdom of Okjeo was a tribal state that was located in the northern Korean Peninsula, and was established after the fall of Gojoseon. Okjeo had been a part of Gojoseon before its fall. It never became a fully-developed kingdom due to the intervention of its neighbouring kingdoms. Okjeo became a tributary of Goguryeo, and was eventually annexed into Goguryeo by Gwanggaeto Taewang in the 5th century.

Dongye

Dongye was another small kingdom that was situated in the northern Korean Peninsula. Dongye bordered Okjeo, and the two kingdoms faced the same fate of becoming tributaries of the growing empire of Goguryeo. Dongye was also a former part of Gojoseon before its fall.

Nangnang Joseon

After the fall of Gojoseon in 239 BC, Choe Soong, a former Gojoseon official, established a 'new Gojoseon' in Liaoning, calling it Nangnang-guk or 'Nangnang nation'. After a few years, the Nangnang Nation moved south into the Korean peninsula near the Taedong River, due to constant attacks by Wiman Joseon. It coexisted with and paid tribute to Buyeo.

Though most of its rulers are unknown or unnamed in historical texts, the last ruler was Choe Ri, who was the father of Princess Nangnang, one of the main characters in a historical Korean love story. She and Prince Hodong of Goguryeo were lovers that stayed with each other despite the war between Goguryeo and Nangnang Joseon. Nangnang Joseon was conquered by Goguryeo in 32 CE.

Samhan

Samhan refers to the three confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan. The Samhan were located in the southern region of the Korean Peninsula. These three confederacies eventually become the foundations, at which Baekje, Silla, and Gaya were established. Mahan was the largest and consisted of 54 states. Byeonhan and Jinhan both consisted of 12 states, bringing a total of 78 states within the Samhan. The term 'Samhan' is later used to describe the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Three Kingdoms Period

Goguryeo

Goguryeo was founded the earliest and was the largest of the three kingdoms. It was founded in 37 BC by Jumong (posthumous name Dongmyeongseong). Goguryeo was the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism as the state religion in 372.

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the fifth century, when King Gwanggaeto and his son, King Jangsu expanded into almost all of Manchuria and part of Inner Mongolia, and took the Seoul region from Baekje. Gwanggaeto and Jangsu subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, bringing about a loose unification of Korea. Goguryeo defeated a massive Chinese invasion in the Goguryeo-Sui War of 598-614, contributing to Sui's fall, and continued to repel the Tang dynasty.

However, numerous wars exhausted Goguryeo and it fell into a weak state. After internal power struggles, it was conquered by the allied Silla-Tang forces in 668.

Baekje

Baekje's foundation by King Onjo in 18 BC, as stated in the Samguk Sagi followed those of its neighbours and rivals, Goguryeo and Silla.

The Sanguo Zhi mentions Baekje as a member of the Mahan confederacy in the Han River basin (near present-day Seoul). It expanded into the southwest (Chungcheong and Jeolla provinces) of the peninsula and became a significant political and military power. In the process, Baekje came into fierce confrontation with Goguryeo and the Chinese commanderies in the vicinity of its territorial ambitions.

At its peak in the 4th century, it had absorbed all of the Mahan states and subjugated most of the western Korean peninsula (including the modern provinces of Kyonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla, as well as part of Hwanghae and Kangwon) to a centralised government. Baekje acquired Chinese culture and technology through contacts with the Southern Dynasties during the expansion of its territory.

Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural developments, such as Chinese characters, Buddhism, iron-making, advanced pottery and ceremonial burial into ancient Japan. Other aspects of culture were also transmitted when the Baekje court retreated to Japan after Baekje was conquered. Baekje was defeated by a coalition of Silla and Tang Dynasty forces in 660.

Silla

According to legend, the kingdom Silla began with the unification of six chiefdoms of the Jinhan confederacy by Bak Hyeokgeose in 57 BC, in the south-eastern area of Korea. Its territory included the present-day port city of Busan, and Silla later emerged as a sea power responsible for destroying Japanese pirates, especially during the Unified Silla period.

Silla artefacts, including unique gold metalwork, show influence from the northern nomadic steppes, with less Chinese influence than are shown by Goguryeo and Baekje. Silla expanded rapidly by occupying the Han River basin and uniting the city states.

By the 2nd century, Silla existed as a large state, occupying and influencing nearby city states. It began to gain power when it annexed in 562 the Gaya confederacy, between Baekje and Silla. Silla often faced pressure from Baekje and Japan, and at various times allied and warred with Baekje and Goguryeo.

In 660, King Muyeol of Silla ordered his armies to attack Baekje. General Kim Yu-shin, aided by Tang forces, conquered Baekje. In 661, Silla and Tang moved on Goguryeo but were repelled. King Munmu, son of Muyeol and nephew of General Kim, ordered his uncle to launch another campaign in 667 and Goguryeo fell in the following year.

North and South States

Post-668 Silla kingdom is often referred to as Unified Silla, though the term North-South States, in reference to Balhae, is also used.

Unified Silla

Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under King Gyeongsun, it was replaced by Goryeo in 935.

After the unification wars, the Tang Dynasty established territories in the former Goguryeo, and began to administer and establish communities in Baekje. Silla attacked the Chinese in Baekje and northern Korea in 671.

China then invaded Silla in 674 but led by General Kim Yu-shin, Silla defeated the Chinese army in the north. Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Three Kingdoms.

Unified Silla was a time when Korean arts flourished dramatically and Buddhism became a large part of Silla culture. Buddhist monasteries such as the Bulguksa are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence. State-sponsored art and architecture from this period include Hwangnyongsa Temple, Bunhwangsa Temple, and Seokguram Grotto, a World Heritage Site.

Silla began to experience political troubles in 780 when kings began to be assassinated by rebel leaders. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning the Later Three Kingdoms period.

Balhae

Balhae was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo by Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general. Balhae controlled the northernmost areas of the Korean Peninsula, much of Manchuria (though it didn't occupy Liaodong peninsula for much of history), and expanded into present-day Russian Maritime Province. Balhae styled itself as Goguryeo's successor state. It also adapted from the Tang Empire, for example in the layout of its capitals.

In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae culture flourished, especially during the long reign of the third Emperor, Dae Heummu (r. 737-793). Like Silla culture, the culture of Balhae was strongly influenced by Buddhism. However, Balhae was severely weakened by the tenth century, and the Khitan Liao Dynasty conquered Balhae in 926.

No historical records from Balhae have survived, and the Liao left no histories of Balhae. Goryeo absorbed some Balhae territory and received Balhae refugees, including the crown prince and the royal family, but compiled no known histories of Balhae either. The Samguk Sagi ('History of the Three Kingdoms'), for instance, includes passages on Balhae, but does not include a dynastic history of Balhae. The eighteenth century Joseon dynasty historian Yu Deukgong advocated the proper study of Balhae as part of Korean history, and coined the term 'North and South States Period' to refer to this era.

892-936: Later Three Kingdoms

The Later Three Kingdoms consisted of Silla, Hubaekje ('Later Baekje'), and Taebong (also known as Hugoguryeo, 'Later Goguryeo'). The latter two, established as Unified Silla declined in power, were viewed as heirs to the earlier Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Taebong (Later Goguryeo) was originally led by Gung Ye, a Buddhist monk who founded Later Goguryeo. The unpopular Gung Ye was deposed by Wang Geon (877-943) in 918, when Gung Ye killed his wife and son. Wang Geon was popular with his people, and he decided to unite the entire peninsula under one government. He attacked Later Baekje in 934 and received the surrender of Silla in the following year. In 936, Goryeo conquered Later Baekje.

Goryeo

Goryeo was founded in 918 and by 936, replaced Silla as the ruling dynasty of Korea. ('Goryeo' is a short form of 'Goguryeo' and the source of the English name 'Korea.') The dynasty lasted until 1392. During this period laws were codified, and a civil service system was introduced. Buddhism flourished, and spread throughout the peninsula. The development of celadon industry flourished in 12th and 13th century. The publication of Tripitaka Koreana, and world's first metal printing technology in 13th century, attests to Goryeo's cultural achievements.

In 1231, the Mongols began its campaigns against Korea and after 25 years of struggle, the royal family relented by signing a treaty with the Mongols. For the following 80 years Goryeo survived, but under the interference of the Mongols. In the 1340s, the Mongol Empire declined rapidly due to internal struggles. King Gongmin was free at last to reform a Goryeo government. Gongmin had various problems that needed to be dealt with, which included the removal of pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officials, the question of land holding, and quelling the growing animosity between the Buddhists and Confucian scholars.

Another problem was that 'Japanese' pirates were now organising deep raids into the country. General Lee Seonggye distinguished himself by repelling the pirates in a series of successful engagements. The Goryeo dynasty would last until 1392, when Lee Seonggye, who had heavy support among aristocracy, would easily take power in a coup.

Joseon

In 1392, a Korean general, Lee Seonggye, was sent to China to campaign against the Ming Dynasty, but instead he returned to overthrow the Goryeo king and establish a new dynasty. He named it the Joseon Dynasty in honour of the previous Joseon before (Gojoseon is the first Joseon. 'Go' was added to distinguish between the two). King Taejo moved the capital to Hanseong (formerly Hanyang; modern-day Seoul) and built the Gyeongbokgung palace. In 1394, he adopted Confucianism as the country's official religion, resulting in much loss of power and wealth by the Buddhists. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture; most notably, the Hangul alphabet was invented by King Sejong in 1443. The Joseon Dynasty is believed to have been the longest-lived actively ruling dynasty in East Asia during the last millennium.

Economy

Joseon maintained a stable economy during peaceful times. After the Joseon court was established and completed, the economy began to prosper as well. Early during the Joseon Dynasty, the economy was stable, especially during King Sejong's rule. However, the economy suffered after the Japanese invasions 1592-1598 and internal court corruption, bribery, and heavy tax, strained the Korean economy.

Social Hierarchy

The Joseon formed a very strict class system that greatly affected the economy. The king was at the top of the system, while the yangbans and government officials and generals were below him. Yangbans were influential scholars during the Joseon Dynasty. The middle class consisted of a few merchants and craftsmen. The bulk of the economy was in lower class of the farmers and the lowest class of the slaves who did not pay any taxes to the government. At one point, slaves comprised 30% of the population.

Foreign Invasions

Joseon dealt with a pair of Japanese invasions from 1592 to 1598 (Imjin War). This conflict brought prominence to Admiral Yi Sun-sin, and the use of turtle ships and hwachas by the Korean military. Subsequently, there were invasions from Manchuria in 1627 and again in 1636 (see the Second Manchu invasion of Korea), after which the Joseon dynasty recognised the legitimacy of the Qing Empire. There was trade with the Japanese at Busan, and emissaries were sent to Edo in Japan. Europeans were not permitted to trade at Korean ports until the 1880s.

19th Century

During the 19th century, Korea tried to control foreign influence by closing the borders to all nations but China. In 1853 the USS South America, an American gunboat, visited Busan for 10 days and had amiable contact with local Korean officials. Several Americans who were shipwrecked on Korea in 1855 and 1865 were also treated well and sent to China for repatriation. The Joseon court which ruled Korea, was well aware of the foreign invasions and treaties involving Qing China, as well as the Opium Wars, and followed a cautious policy of slow exchange with the west. In 1866 the General Sherman Incident put Korea and the United States on a collision course.

In 1871, the United States confronted Korea militarily, and retreated, in what the Koreans call the Sinmiyangyo. By 1876, a rapidly modernising Japan forced Korea to open its ports and successfully challenged the Qing Empire in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). In 1895, the Japanese murdered Empress Myeongseong, who had sought Russian help, and the Russians were forced to retreat from Korea.

In 1897, Joseon was renamed Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire), and King Gojong became Emperor Gojong. A period of Russian influence followed, until Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Korea effectively became a protectorate of Japan on 25 July 1907, the 1905 Protectorate Treaty having been promulgated without Emperor Gojong's required seal.

Japanese Occupation

In 1910, Japan effectively annexed Korea by the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty. While the legality of the treaty is still asserted by Japan, it is generally not accepted in Korea because it was not signed by the Emperor of Korea as required and violated international convention on external pressures regarding treaties. Korea was controlled by Japan under a so-called Governor-General of Korea until Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allied Forces, on 15 August 1945, with de jure sovereignty deemed to have passed from Joseon Dynasty to the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.

European-styled transport and communication networks were established across the nation. This facilitated Japanese exploitation, but modernisation had little if any effect on the Korean people, but was mainly being used to serve Japanese trade needs, and their tight centralised controls. The Japanese removed the Joseon hierarchy, destroyed the Korean Palace, and revamped Korea's taxation system to evict tenant farmers, export Korean rice crops to Japan which provoked Korean famines; and brought in a punitive series of measures which included murdering those who refused to pay taxes in the provinces; forced slavery in roadworks, mines, and first sweat shop factories in Korea. Then Japan further promoted slavery of Koreans in Japan and its occupied territories by transporting forced slaves to these areas.

After the Korean Emperor Gojong died in January 1919, with a rumour of poisoning, independence rallies against Japanese invaders took place nationwide on 1 March 1919 (the March 1st (Samil) Movement). This movement was suppressed by force and about 7,000 were killed by Japanese soldiers and police. An estimated 2 million people took part in peaceful, pro-liberation rallies. This movement was partly inspired by United States president Woodrow Wilson's speech of 1919, declaring support for right of self determination and an end to colonial rule for Europeans. No comment was made by Wilson on Korean independence, perhaps as a pro-Japan faction in the USA sought trade inroads into China through the Korean peninsula.

The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was established in Shanghai, China, in an aftermath of March 1st Movement, which coordinated the Liberation effort and resistance against Japanese control. Some of the achievements of the Provisional Government include the Battle of Chingshanli of 1920 and the ambush of Japanese Military Leadership in China in 1932. The Provisional Government is considered to be the de jure government of the Korean people between the period 1919 to 1948, and its legitimacy is enshrined in the preamble to the constitution of the South Korea.

Continued anti-Japanese uprisings, such as the nationwide uprising of students in November 1929, led to the strengthening of military rule in 1931. After the outbreaks of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and World War II Japan attempted to exterminate Korea as a nation. Worship at Japanese Shinto shrines was made compulsory. The school curriculum was radically modified to eliminate teaching in the Korean language and history within Korea. The continuance of Korean culture itself began to be illegal. The Korean language was banned and Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names. Numerous Korean cultural artefacts were destroyed or taken to Japan. Newspapers were prohibited from publishing in Korean and the study of Korean history was banned at university with Korean textbooks burnt, destroyed, or made illegal. According to an investigation by the South Korean government, 75,311 cultural assets were taken from Korea.

Some Koreans left the Korean peninsula to Manchuria and Primorsky Krai. Koreans in Manchuria formed resistance groups known as Dongnipgun (Independence Army), which would travel in and out of the Korean-Chinese boundary, fighting guerrilla warfare with the Japanese forces. These guerrilla armies would come together in 1940s as Korean Liberation Army and the Liberation Army took part in allied action in China and parts of South East Asia. Tens of thousands of Koreans also joined the Peoples Liberation Army and the National Revolutionary Army.

During World War II, Koreans were forced to support the Japanese war effort. Tens of thousands of men were conscripted into Japan's military.

The Division of Korea

The unconditional surrender of Japan, the earlier collapse of Nazi Germany, combined with fundamental shifts in global politics and ideology, led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones effectively starting on September 8, 1945, with the United States administering the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union taking over the area north of the 38th parallel. The Provisional Government was ignored, mainly due to the conception that it was too communist-aligned. This division was meant to be temporary and was first intended to return a unified Korea back to its people until the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a trusteeship administration.

At the Cairo Conference on 22 November 1943, it was agreed that "in due course Korea shall become free and independent". At a later meeting in Yalta in February 1945, it was agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship over Korea. On August 9, 1945, Soviet tanks entered northern Korea from Siberia, meeting little to no resistance. Japan surrendered to the Allied Forces on 15 August 1945.

In December 1945, a conference convened in Moscow to discuss the future of Korea. A 5-year trusteeship was discussed, and a joint Soviet-American commission was established. The commission met intermittently in Seoul but deadlocked over the issue of establishing a national government. In September 1947, with no solution in sight, the United States submitted the Korean question to the UN General Assembly.

Initial hopes for a unified, independent Korea quickly evaporated as the politics of the Cold War and opposition to the trusteeship plan from Korean anti-communists resulted in the 1948 establishment of two separate nations with diametrically opposed political, economic, and social systems. On December 12, 1948, by its resolution 195 in the Third General Assembly, United Nation recognised Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea.