Culture

Contemporary New Zealand has a diverse culture with influences from English, Scottish, Irish, and Maori cultures, along with those of other European cultures and - more recently - Polynesian cultures, (including Samoan, Tongan, Tokelaun Niuean, Cook Islands Maori, Tahitian and Hawaiian); also southern Asian (Indian), Southeast Asian (Filipino, Malaysian, Cambodian, and Vietnamese), and east Asian (Chinese, Korean, and Japanese) cultures.

Large festivals in celebration of Diwali and Chinese New Year are held in Auckland, as is the world's largest Polynesian festival, Pasifika. Although primary migration was from England there were also many people from Scotland amongst the early British settlers and elements of their culture persist; New Zealand is said to have more pipebands than Scotland. Cultural links between New Zealand and the United Kingdom are maintained by a common language, sustained migration from the United Kingdom and the fact that many young New Zealanders spend time in the United Kingdom on their "overseas experience" (OE).

Maori Culture

Maori culture has undergone considerable change since the arrival of Europeans; for example Christianity has been widely adopted, and most Maori now live similar lifestyles to their Pakeha (New Zealanders of Anglo/European extraction) neighbours. However many traditional aspects of Maori culture are alive and well.

Language

Use of the Maori language (Te Reo Maori) as a living, community language remained only in a few remote areas in the post-war years, but is currently undergoing a renaissance, thanks in part to Maori language immersion schools and a Maori Television channel set up after recommendations were made by the Waitangi Tribunal. Maori Television is the only nationwide television channel to have the majority of its prime-time content delivered in Maori (sometimes with sub-titles in English). Maori Television is also the only television channel that tries to generate new content in Maori and subtitles English programmes in Maori. None of the other television channels present a substantial number of Maori programmes, or subtitle English language programmes in Maori, despite the fact that it is an official language equal to English.

Marae

In Maori society, the marae is a place where the culture can be celebrated, where the Maori language can be spoken, where intertribal obligations can be met, where customs can be explored and debated, where family occasions such as weddings and birthdays can be held, and where important ceremonies, such as extending a formal welcome to visitors or farewelling the dead, can be performed. Like the related institutions of old Polynesia, the marae is a wahi tapu, a 'sacred place' which carries great cultural meaning.

In Maori usage, marae is technically the enclosed space in front of a wharenui or meeting house (literally "big house"). However, it is generally used to refer to the whole complex, including the buildings and the open space. An unambiguous term for the area in front of the wharenui is marae atea. This area is used for powhiri - welcome ceremonies featuring oratory. Some marae do not allow women to perform oratory there. The meeting house is the locale for important meetings, sleepovers, and craft and other cultural activities. The wharekai (dining hall) is used primarily for communal meals, but other activities may be carried out there.

Locals and visitors have to respect certain rules, especially during the rituals of encounter. Should a group of people come to stay on a marae, they are considered manuhiri (guests) while the owners of the marae are known as tangata whenua (people of the land). Should other groups of manuhiri arrive, the manuhiri who arrived previously - regardless of their race - are considered tangata whenua for the purposes of formally welcoming the new group.

Although marae have modern cooking facilities, the hangi, a traditional way of cooking food in Polynesia, is still used to provide meals for large groups because the food it produces is considered flavourful. The hangi consists of a shallow hole dug in the ground. A fire is prepared in the hole and stones are placed on the top of it. When the stones are hot the hangi is prepared for cooking by leaving the hot stones and some of the coals at the bottom of the hole. The food is placed on top of the stones, the meat first, with the vegetables, such as kumara and potatoes, on top of it. The hangi is then covered with leaves or mats woven out of flax (or wet sacks) and left to cook. Finally, soil is heaped over the hangi to keep the heat in.

Kapa Haka

A Kapa haka is a group gathered to practise and perform the songs and dances of the Maori people of New Zealand. (kapa means "rank" or "row" in Maori and much of the performance is given with the performers in rows). More recently the expression has been used (incorrectly, according to an older school of native speakers) to mean the performance itself.

A kapa haka performance involves choral singing, dance and movements associated in the hand-to-hand combat practiced by Maori in precolonial times, presented in a synchronisation of action, timing, posture, footwork and sound. The genre evolved out of a combination of European and Maori musical principles.

Waiata Tira

Waiata tira are choral pieces used to warm up the vocal chords and introduce the group to the audience. Through a waiata tira the group announces its arrival in a manner that is generally light and positive.

Whakaeke

Whakaeke are also choral pieces. They are frequently used to comment on a social issue of the day or to commemorate an individual or some element of Maoridom. They may also simply be used as the entrance song to announce the group's arrival.

Haka

Haka are best described as challenges. They are used to make a point and to vent anger. They are performed by both men and women, with the focus on the men in the front and support from the women behind. They are vocal performances involving rhythmic declamation in triple metre and aggressive or challenging facial expressions (pukana, literally "glaring"), body movements and demeanour. The men make heavy use of foot stamping, body percussion, and grimace in an attempt to appear as menacing as possible. Haka are often described as traditional war dances but in fact had many other uses as well in precolonial Maori society, and have many peaceful uses today. The haka has become part of wider New Zealand culture, being performed by the All Blacks before international games.

Waiata-a-Ringa

Waiata-a-ringa (literally "song of hands or arms") are "action songs", which means that they display the typical Polynesian practice of embellishing and reinforcing the sung poetry with arm and hand actions. They are performed by men and women with women in the front and men in the back. Some use melodies from common English-language songs with new lyrics in Maori, while others are newly-composed, treating a wide variety of topics. They feature the wiri or trembling of the hands to indicate the interface between the mind and the body.

Poi

Poi are women's dances involving the swinging of balls, about the size of tennis balls, attached to cords. Poi's origins lie in the precolonial practice of training with poi to improve agility in battle, but today poi is used to showcase the beauty and gracefulness of the women. Performers swing the balls in synchrony in a variety of figures and rhythms while simultaneously singing a song (a waiata poi) accompanied by guitar. They demonstrate great dexterity and coordination, particularly with "long poi", with cords up to a metre long, where four poi at once may be manipulated by each performer. Formerly the balls were made of raupo and the cords of flax but today they tend to be made of plastic shopping-bag material and yarn. The sound of poi striking the hands is an important part of the musical accompaniment.

Titi Torea

Titi torea are occasionally used by kapa haka; these are pairs of carved thin sticks about shoulder width manipulated with dextrous wrist and arm work, often simultaneously passed between performers. Like poi, titi torea figures are performed in synchrony and to music (and like poi, their sounds, especially that of the ends hitting the floor together, form a percussive accompaniment); and, also like poi, arose out of a precolonial warrior training technique.

Pou

Pou or moteatea are unison songs performed in a style reminisicent of precolonial Maori singing. They are an important genre within Maoridom because they tell stories in which historical, genealogical and cultural information is preserved and thus link Maori with their past. Moteatea come in a variety of forms including laments, lullabies and songs about revenge, anger, and love.

Whakawatea

Whakawatea are choral pieces used to farewell the audience or make a final point before departing the stage. They may pick up on themes raised in the whakaeke or comment on the event at hand. Performers are often at the side or back of the stage.

Pakeha Culture

Pakeha culture derives mainly from that of the British settlers who colonised New Zealand in the nineteenth century. Although it is recognisably related to British culture, it has always had distinct differences, and these have increased as time has gone on. Things which distinguish Pakeha culture from British culture include higher levels of egalitarianism, anti-intellectualism, and the idea that most people can do most things if they put their minds to it. Within Pakeha culture are sub-cultures derived from Irish, Italian and other European groups, as well as various non-ethnic subcultures.

Sports

Sport has a major role in New Zealand's culture; this is particularly the case with rugby union. Rugby union is closely linked to New Zealand's national identity. The national rugby team, the All Blacks, has the best winning record of any national team. They hosted and won the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987, and will host the 2011 Rugby World Cup. The haka, a traditional Maori challenge, is traditionally performed by the All Blacks before the start of international matches.

Other popular sports include rugby league, cricket, cycling, field hockey, softball, netball, lawn bowling, football (soccer) and a variety of water sports, particularly surfing, sailing, whitewater kayaking, surf lifesaving skills and rowing. Snow sports such as skiing and snowboarding are also popular. Equestrian sportsmen and sportswomen make their mark in the world, with Mark Todd being chosen international "Horseman of the Century", and many juniors at pony club level.

The Arts

Visual Art

Pre-European Maori visual art had two main forms: carving and weaving. Both recorded stories and legends and also had religious roles. When Europeans arrived they brought with them Western artistic traditions. Early Pakeha art focussed mainly on landscape painting, although some of the best known Pakeha artists of the nineteenth century (Charles Goldie and Gottfried Lindauer) specialised in Maori portraiture. Some Maori adopted Western styles and a number of nineteenth century meeting houses feature walls painted with portraits and plant designs. From the early twentieth century Apirana Ngata and others began a programme of reviving traditional Maori arts, and many new meeting houses were built with traditional carving and tukutuku (woven wall panels) were built. A longstanding concern of Pakeha artists has been the creation of a distinctly New Zealand artistic style. Rita Angus and others used the landscape to try and achieve this while painters such as Gordon Walters used Maori motifs. A number of Maori artists, including Paratene Matchitt and Shane Cotton have combined Western modernism with traditional Maori art.

Drama

New Zealand drama, both on stage and screen, has been plagued by much of its history by cost and lack of popular interest in New Zealand culture. Despite this, Roger Hall and more recently Jacob Rajan are two playwrights to achieve considerable popular success. In recent decades New Zealand film has grown dramatically, with films Once Were Warriors, The Piano and Heavenly Creatures doing well both locally and internationally, and Peter Jackson becoming one of film's most successful directors.

Music

New Zealand music takes most of the same forms as that of other 'Western' countries, with hip-hop being particularly popular amongst young Maori and Pacific Islanders. New Zealand hip-hop tends to be more humorous and much less violent and sexist than in other countries. There are small but thriving live music and dance party scenes. Classical music has less popular support, but New Zealand has produced several successful composers and an international famous opera singer (Kiri Te Kanawa).

Writing

New Zealand's most successful early writers were expatriates such as Katherine Mansfield. From the 1950s, Frank Sargeson, Janet Frame and others had (non lucrative) writing careers while still living in New Zealand. Until about the 1980s, the main New Zealand literary form was the short story, but in recent decades novels such as Alan Duff's Once Were Warriors, Elizabeth Knox's The Vintner's Luck and others have achieved critical and popular success. Maori culture is traditionally oral rather than literate, but in recent years Maori novelists such as Duff, Witi Ihimaera and Keri Hulme and poets such as Hone Tuwhare have shown their mastery of European-originated forms.