History

Syria has been part of the Phoenician, Persian, Roman and Byzantine empires. It was conquered by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century, when Damascus became the capital of the Umayyad Dynasty and was subsequently ruled by foreign dynasties including the Egyptian Fatimids and Mamluks before being conquered by the Turks in the 11th century. The area was the scene of many battles during the Crusades in the Middle Ages. It was part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517 and after enjoying a brief period of independence in 1920, it was then made a French mandate. Syria gained its independence in 1946 and merged with Yemen and Egypt in 1958 to form the United Arab Republic. However, it re-established itself as at independent state under its present name in 1961. President Hafez al-Asad seized power in a coup in 1970 formally taking office in 1971. Syria suffered setbacks in the Six-Day War of 1967, when the Golan Heights region was seized by Israel.

In 1975, Syrian troops were sent to restore order in Lebanon, after the outbreak of civil war, and Syrian soldiers were also part of the international coalition force that opposed Iraq in the Gulf War. After his death in 2000, President Hafez al-Asad was succeeded by his son, Bashar.

Ancient Syria

Syrian civilisation dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Many sites in Syria evoke the beginnings of recorded human history.

Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the centre of one of the most ancient civilisations on Earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla (Tel Merdikh) in north-eastern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 BC. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest recorded Semitic language. A royal palace was discovered containing one of the largest and most comprehensive archives of the ancient world. Ebla's archive consists of more than 17,000 clay tablets dealing with matters of industry, diplomacy, trade, art and agriculture. The city became world-famous for two industries: the manufacture of finely carved wood, inlaid with ivory and mother of pearls; and of silk cloth of gold. Today these industries still prosper, with Syrian brocade and mosaics fashioned according to the artisan tradition of ancient Ebla.

Other notable cities excavated include Mari, Ugarit and Dura Europos. At Mari (Tel Hariri) numerous palaces, temples and murals were found that reflect advanced cultural and commercial activity. The kingdom of Ugarit (Ras Shamra) offered humankind its first alphabet.

During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans. The Hebrews eventually settled south of Damascus, in the areas later known as Palestine; the Phoenicians settled along the coastline of these areas as well as in the west, in the area already known for its cedars (Lebanon). Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period, as it was a marchland between their various empires. Eventually the Persians took control of Syria as part of their general control of Southwest Asia; this control transferred to the Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquests and thence to the Romans and the Byzantines.

In the Roman period, the great city of Antioch (it was called the Athens of the east at that time) was the capital of Syria and one of the largest cities in the world at that time. With a total estimated population of 500,000, the city was one of the largest centres of trade and industry in the ancient world. As one of the wealthiest and more populous provinces of the Roman Empire, it is estimated that the population of Syria in the early Roman Empire was only exceeded in the 19th century.

Early Christian and Islamic History

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus and established the first organised Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.

Damascus, a city that has been inhabited as early as 3,000 BC, is known to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in AD 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to the borders of Central Asia from AD 661 to AD 750. Syria acted as cultural hub that took in influences from many sources and sent them out to other parts of the empire and Damascus achieved a glory unrivalled among cities of the eighth century. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in AD 750, and the seat of the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.

Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next four hundred years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.

After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was dissolved, and in 1922 the League of Nations split the dominion of the former Syria between two countries: the United Kingdom received what became Israel and Jordan, and France received what was to become modern-day Syria and Lebanon.

French Occupation

In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under King Faisal of the Hashemite family, who later became the King of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French forces at the Battle of Maysalun.

Under the terms of the Sykes-Picot Agreement, France was granted a mandate over Syria by the League of Nations. The French army attacked Damascus and crushed the Syrian resistance in the Battle of Maysalun. The Syrian national congress and the kingdom were dissolved, Faisal fled to Palestine, and then to Italy. France governed Syria directly by the high commissioner.

In late 1921 and 1922, French authorities divided Syria into six states: Aleppo, Damascus, Jabal el Druze, the Alawite State, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun (state of Alexandretta). Autonomy status was granted in Jabal al Druze, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun. By the Franco-Turkish agreement of Ankara (1921) France decided to give the state of Alexandretta a special administration, where it was governed under mandate authorities, the autonomous government and the government of Turkey.

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September of 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi, who was Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign, was the first president to be elected under a new constitution, effectively the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, France reneged on the treaty and refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French occupied the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it wasn't until January 1, 1944 that it was recognised as an independent republic. On February 26 1945 Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

1946: Independence

In 1946 Syria was declared as an independent republic, with 'Syrian Republic' as its official name (later; Syrian Arab Republic), and with presidency of Shukri al-Quwatli. Parliament was rebuilt in 1947, and under elections a new chamber of deputies was formed, as the first parliament after independence. In March 29, 1947 Shukri al-Quwatli founded the Syrian National Party, as the successor of the National Bloc, with him as its leader. In April 9, 1947 the Baath Party was founded by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar, which called for a pan Arab unity with Socialism as the economic doctrine.

On June 20, 1947 Prime Minister Saadallah al-Jabiri died in office, and Jamil Mardam Bey replaced him. In March 1948, Parliament amended the constitution to give the constitutional right for the president to serve another 5 years- term, and in the same month Parliament re-elected Shukri al-Quwatli as President for another 5 years term.

In 1948, Rushdi Kekhia and Nazim al-Kudsi formed the People's Party, which consisted of former National Bloc members, who refused to join the national party. The Syrian army participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was defeated. As a result, Ahmad Sharabati, the Minster of Defence, resigned, accepting all blame for defeat at war.

1948: Arab-Israeli War

The Syrian army played a limited role in the war. Despite Syria's initial losses, its forces were able to occupy a thin strip of Palestinian land running the length of its border during the first two months of the war. The Syrian army managed to cross the Jordan River just south of Lake Hula to occupy Kibbutz Mishmar Hayarden and defend it against several Israeli counter-attacks.

Syrian forces also established a foothold in the extreme northeastern corner of Palestine, just east of the Jewish settlement of Dan. Thus, Syria occupied three distinct enclaves within Palestine in the northern, central and southern regions of the 1923 border. These three enclaves added to the thin strip of land stretching along the eastern perimeter of the Jordan and Tiberius added up to 66.5 square kilometres of land. It would become part of the demilitarized zone following the 1949 armistice signed between Syria and Israel and remains contested between the two sides to this day.

Other than the two offensive operations to grab villages across the Jordan River, the Syrian army remained largely inactive during the 1948 war. The Arab Liberation Army (ALA) survived in the northern Galilee until November 1948, when it was driven into Lebanon by Jewish forces that were moved up from the south.

1949-1954: Military Coups

Syria's first coup d'état occurred In March 30, 1949, led by General Husni al-Zaim, a member of the Kurdish minority. Zaim was backed by the British, the French, the CIA, and by civilians who were tired from high prices, and from the poor leadership of Quwatli. Zaim declared that he would support any American pact in the Middle East, if they would support Syria and the area around. Zaim appointed himself a Prime Minister, and appointed a 7 members committee that drew up a secular constitution, which did not declare the state or official religion or a specific religion of the president. Zaim also called for women to stop the Islamic practice of veiling.

Zaim dissolved Parliament in April and became President in July 25, 1949 by a popular referendum winning 99.9% of the votes. Zaim appointed Muhsin al-Barazi as Prime Minister, and went on to launch large developing scale projects such as building schools, hospitals, roads, by working on the project of Euphrates river dam to bring water to Aleppo, and initiating the Latakia harbor project. However, the new regime was overthrown in August 1949 by another coup d'état led by Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi, and Zaim and Barazi were executed after a military trial.

Hinawi asked Hashim al-Atassi (President, 1936-39) to form a provisional government. As Prime Minister, Atasi appointed a cabinet and formed an executive counsel. General elections were held under a new electoral law (for the first time, women voted) on 15-16 November for a constituent assembly, which would draw up a civil constitution. The Aleppo party (The People's Party) won major seats in the assembly, and its leader, Rushdi Kekhia, was elected speaker of the constituent assembly. Atasi was elected as a head of state on December 14, 1949.

A third coup d'état, led by Colonel Adib al-Shishakli, a former chief of police and head of security, occurred in December that year. Shishakli arrested the chief of staff, and the coup leader, Sami al- Hinawi. The constituent assembly promulgated a new constitution in September 1950 and, assuming responsibility as the chamber of deputies, elected the head of state Hashim al-Atasi, to the presidency in September 7, 1950, and elected Rushdi Kekhia (ex-speaker of the constituent assembly) a speaker of the Parliament. In 1951, the Baath party joined the Arab socialist party as the Baath Arab socialist party.

Shishakli carried out the fourth coup d'état on 29,November, 1951, arresting the Prime Minister, Cabinet, and people's party members, and forced President Atasi to resign. Shishakli, assuming responsibility as the chief of staff, dissolved Parliament, banned all political parties and newspapers, and appointed Fawzi selu as President. Shishakli formed his own political party in August 25, 1952 called the Arab Liberation Movement ALM, which became the only legal party in Syria.

On July 11, 1953 Shishakli became President, winning the plebiscite with 99.8%. Shishakli approved a new constitution in October 24, 1953, making Syria a presidential republic, creating a 83 seats chamber of deputies composed of ALM deputies, and restricting the civil liberties that were provided by the 1950 constitution.

Shishakli was ousted by a fifth coup d'état on February 24, 1954. Shishakli's successors reinstated Atasi as president, reconvened the 1949 chamber of deputies, restored the constitution of 1950, reinstated cabinet, and restored all Pre- Shishakli political elements.

1954-1958: Civilian Rule

Free elections were held in September 1955, with a new chamber of deputies formed, and with Shukri al-Quwatli (President, 1943-49, and leader of the Syrian national party) as President. Sabri al-Asali was appointed Prime Minister in place of Fares al-Khoury the following month.

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, after the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli troops, and the intervention of British and French troops, martial law was declared in Syria. The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into the Baghdad Pact.

In November 1956, Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria. The increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake Iskenderon, a formerly Syrian city now in Turkey. Syria and the USSR in turn accused Turkey of massing its troops at the Syrian border. During this standoff, Communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military.

1958-1961: United Arab Republic

Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdal Nasser's leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis, created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On February 1, 1958, Syrian president Shukri al-Kuwatli and Nasser announced the merging of the two countries, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities.

From September 1958 to February 1959 a land reform program was introduced, and private agricultural farms and territories were nationalised and were given to peasants. In July 1961, a socialist program was introduced, nationalising all private banks and factories.

However, the union was not a success, and on September 28, 1961, a group of army officers led by Karim an-Nahlawi seized power and declared the independence of the Syrian Arab Republic.

1961-1963: Post-Union Regime

Civilian government was created in Damascus, and Nazim al- Qudsi was elected a president, who appointed Marouf al-Douwalibi a Prime Minister. Marking anti-socialism sentiment, President Qudsi restored some of the nationalised factories and lands to their old owners.

The Qudsi regime was overthrown in March 28, 1962 by a military coup, lead also by Karim an-Nahlawi, who arrested the President and Prime Minister. The 1950 constitution was restored with some amendments as the provisional constitution. Another military coup occurred in April 2, 1962, lead by Abdul Karim Zahreddin, who released Qudsi and Douwalibi, and dismissed Nahlawi from the Syrian army. President Qudsi appointed Khalid al-Azm as Prime Minister.

1963: Baath Takeover

On March 8, 1963, a group of military and civilian officials (the National Council of the Revolutionary Command or NCRC) assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Baath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Baath members.

The Baath takeover in Syria followed a Baath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and with Baath-controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialise. Thereafter, the Baath regimes in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. However, these plans foundered in November 1963, when the Baath regime in Iraq was overthrown.

In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organisations (labour, peasant, and professional unions); a presidential council, in which executive power was vested; and a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Baath government on March 1. The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Baath Party principles. Israel invaded Syria in June 1967 (the Six-Day War) and captured and occupied the Golan Heights. This invasion weakened the radical socialist regime established by the 1966 coup.

Conflict developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian wing of the Baath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the 'Black September' hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Baath leadership. On November 13, 1970, Minister of Defence Hafiz al-Asad effected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of President.

1970-2000: Baath Party Rule under Hafez al-Assad

Upon assuming presidency, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organisational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among 'popular organizations' and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.

1973: Yom Kippur War

On October 6 1973, Syria and Egypt began the Yom Kippur War by staging a surprise attack against Israel (Arabs call it the 'Ramadan War' or 'October War' because Syria and Egypt attacked during Ramadan in the month of October). But despite the element of surprise, Egypt and Syria lost the war, and Israel continued to occupy the Golan Heights as part of the Israeli-occupied territories. Subsequent shuttle diplomacy by Henry Kissinger eventually produced a disengagement agreement on May 31, 1974, based on exchange of prisoners-of-war, Israeli withdrawal to the Purple Line and the establishment of a UN buffer zone. The agreement ended the skirmishes and exchanges of artillery fire that had occurred frequently along the Israeli-Syrian cease-fire line. The UN Disengagement and Observer Force (UNDOF) was established as a peacekeeping force in the Golan.

Involvement in Lebanon

In early 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon at the request of the Lebanese government to help stop the civil war. Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun, but soon became embroiled in the Lebanese Civil War, beginning the 30 year Syrian presence in Lebanon. Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters. The civil war was declared over on October 13, 1990. Syria helped the Lebanese government to re-establish control over much of the country. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005, exerting influence over Lebanese politics, which was deeply resented by many.

About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the civil war ended, to find employment and pursue business opportunities. In 1994, 200,000 Syrians resident in the country were granted citizenship.

Opposition and Repression

The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from Sunni Muslims called the Muslim Brotherhood who rejected the basic values of the secular Baath program and objected to rule by the Alawis, whom they considered heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the opposition centred in the city of Hama, levelling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded.

Since then, public manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited. A challenge from within the regime came in 1984, when Hafez was hospitalized after a heart attack. His brother Rifaat then attempted to seize power using internal security forces under his control. Despite his poor health, Hafez managed to assert control and sent Rifaat into exile.

Foreign Relations

Syria's 1991 participation in the US-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez Al-Assad's meeting with then US President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

Death and Succession of Hafez al-Assad

Hafez al-Assad died on June 10, 2000, after thirty years in office. Within a few hours, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad to be legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. On July 10, 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote.

Syria in the 21st Century

In his inauguration speech delivered at the People's Council on July 17, 2000, Bashar Al-Assad promised political and democratic reform. Enthusiasm faded quickly as the government cracked down on civil forums and reform activists, although there was still a notable liberalisation compared to the totalitarianism of Hafez. The lifting of bans on Internet access, mobile telephones and the spread of computer technology had a great impact on the previously isolated Syrian society. Today there exists a small but growing number of dissident intellectuals, as well as several formerly illegal opposition parties. However, government power rests firmly in the hands of the Baath, and police surveillance and occasional crackdowns keeps opposition activities limited.

Syria opposed the Iraq war in March 2003, and bilateral relations with the US swiftly deteriorated.

Syria has been alleged by some to be a state giving safe haven to Palestinian militant groups and financing Hezbollah's actions in Lebanon. The offices of Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad reside in Damascus with Sheikh Abdullah Ramadan being the most notable figure.

On October 5, 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, charging it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad. Islamic Jihad said the camp was not in use, and the government said that the attack was on a civilian area.